Astronomy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Astronomy - Essay Example b. what is the significance or importance of patterns or cycles in nature to the development of science? Patterns or cycles help science by predicting behavior of seasons, planet movement, and other aspects of our environment. The prediction of these seasons were vital to the survival of ancient people, and still help farmers today. Without these predictions humans would have no food. Astronomy helped ancient civilizations predict the seasons, create temples, invent astronomy and even create gods out of the sky. The practical uses were the making of a calendar to predict seasons. This helped with harvesting food, plan for harsh climates, and gave ancient civilizations a way to document time. 5. describe the apparent motions of the planets in the sky. The planets seem to have the apparent motions of back and forth depending on their orbit and the earth’s position. This proves that all the planets have their own orbits around the sun. 7. how did kepler first try to relate the spacing of the orbits of the planets? Why did kepler find this approach philosophically satisfying? Kepler felt that the spacing of the planet orbits was spiritual. The universe was built in God’s image. The sun was God the Father, the Earth the Son, and everything in between the Holy Spirit. Kepler felt science and religion could compliment each other. On February 4, 1600, Kepler met Tycho Brahe at Benà ¡tky nad Jizerou in Poland. This is where Tychos new observatory was being constructed. This observatory was for Tycho’s studies on Mars. Kepler’s political and religious troubles in Poland plagued the mutual work of Kepler and Tycho. "Since the divine benevolence has vouchsafed us Tycho Brahe, a most diligent observer, from whose observations the 8 error in this Ptolemaic computation is shown, it is fitting that we with thankful mind both acknowledge and honor this benefit of God... For if I had thought I could ignore

Critical Social Work And Its Values Analysis Social Work Essay

Critical Social Work And Its Values Analysis Social Work Essay The essay analyses theories underpinning and key elements of critical social work and its values. An exploration of counselling as a form of social work practice and how it is influenced by the critical social work approach will be included. Examples from practice experience/ literature and the influence of inequalities, power and social divisions will be discussed. The views of service users and their contribution towards the practice will also be take into account in the essay. Payne (2005) traces social work in the UK back to the 19th century as a community and charitable activity to support the disadvantaged and poor. From the charitable and community origins it developed into a broader field. Jordan (2004) cited in Collins (2009) believes social work owes its origins to Christian morality than a commitment to social problems affecting individuals. Following the economic crisis in the UK in the 1970s due to escalating oil prices social issues like poor housing, unemployment, and poverty and homelessness social work shifted and broadened its focus and tried to address social issues and problems. Adams et al (2005). Adams et al (2009) mentions that in attempting to address social problems, disadvantage and inequalities social work practitioners have drawn knowledge and ideas from various disciplines such as sociology, psychology, philosophy and politics. From this multi-disciplinary knowledge base the underpinning ideology was anti oppressive principle which provides theoretical tools to understand intervene and respond to the complex experience of oppression. This means social work practitioners have a moral, ethical and legal responsibility to challenge inequalities and disadvantage (Payne 2005). Fook (2002) claims that critical practice can be traced and associated with radical social work in the 1960s-70s deriving ideas from Marxist theory. Marx analysed the capital society he lived in Germany and argued that the structures within society derived from the economy and the changes in the industrial revolution influenced some people to be more powerful and others not. Individuals were restrained by the demands of capitalism. Marx highlighted issues of class and class struggle where there is a struggle between powerful and powerless resulting in different societal classes. Those in power will seek to retain it mostly by exploitation of the powerless. Thompson (2006) affirms that society comprises of a diverse range of people in which social divisions emerge which in turn forms the societal structures which networks relationships, institutions and groupings. These groupings determine, control and regulate the distribution of power, privilege, status and opportunities resulting in social stratification and dimensions. From these groupings however it is important to mention that unfairness, inequality and oppression is witnessed in the group of people who are vulnerable and marginalised. Radical social work upheld the following themes: structural analysis of personal problems, ongoing social critique mainly focusing on oppressive ideas/practice and goals of self emancipation and social change. Parallel to these traditions empowering and anti-oppressive practice to participation in research and community work Adams et al (2005). Several key principles were shared from radical critiques to present critical social work which are: challenging dominant forces and oppression in all forms, a critique of positivist ideas and the need to challenge dominant constructed ways of knowing by developing other ways of knowing. This would be achieved through recognising that knowledge may reflect reality but may also be socially constructed through language and ideology. In order to create more/new knowledge self reflection and interaction are essential tools using communication processes Allan et al (2009). Moya et al (2009) believes that critical thinking was further enhanced by Marxism through academics from the Frankfurt School of Sociologists (Horkeimer (1979), Adorno and Horkeimer, (1979) and Marcuse (1964) from the 1920s/30s and Habermas (1984, 1987)s writing in the late twentieth century. The sociologists held that social interpretation was based on assumptions of a fixed social order mainly derived from religion, politics and social beliefs. When this order is rejected and challenged, sociologists believed that this would enhance knowledge of the environment which makes individuals more effective. Gerth and Mills (1948) and Durkeim (1972) cited in Harrington (2005) established that if we understand how social relationships work we would be able to achieve our objectives in society. This is how critical thinking in modernist way is about and it was termed modernism but has expanded and embraced other theories concerned with transformation and social change. Gray and Webb (2008) argue that critical theory is shifting from the Frankfurt school but at the same time it has not defined its critical base. Allan et al (2003); Fook (2002); Healey (2000) acknowledge that there is tension in defining critical theory as it comprises different theories, some argue that it is an umbrella term that encompasses a range of theories and approaches including Marxist, radical, feminist, anti-racist, anti-oppressive, anti-discriminatory, post colonial, critical constructivist and structural perspectives. This suggests that there are many theories although different they all try to understand the r elationship between an individual and society. Thus critical practice involves ones judgement in a reflective and diverse manner Adams et al (2009). Critical practice involves exploring different options in a situation or actions in judging the best way to address issues. The practitioner would review their ideas, perspectives and options of others before deciding a best way forward. This is underpinned by the fact of accepting change and continuity as practitioners encounter different situations and ideas. Payne et al (2005) further mentions that in order to fulfil the requirements of critical practice which include liberation and empowerment social workers need an open mind, reflective stance that encompasses diverse perspectives, experience and assumptions. This would result in acknowledging individual differences, equal opportunity and respect. Fook and Garner (2007) further identify three aspects of critical practice which are critical thinking, critical action and reflexivity as essential tools to apply when seeking social justice and change. From these theories we can trace the ideas of critical perspective and acknowledge that the powerless can influence policy, societal views and self emancipation from the oppressors. An example of theoretical development implemented by service users was the theorising of disability from the medicalised interpretation to social model of disability. This shift was championed by disabled peoples movements to express how they felt and were treated for more than a century. This shift and theory influenced societal attitudes, influenced policies and to some extent changed societal attitudes in UK and abroad. Abberley (1998); Barnes, (1998). Morris, (1993) supports this by mentioning that the disability movement has overhauled societal perceptions and upheld disabled peoples rights to live independently, promote anti discriminatory practice, fairness and equal opportunities. Systems theory is another major theoretical source underpinning social work. The theory emphasised that peoples existence is determined by the environment they live or grow in. It highlighted that peoples problems are a result of how they interact with their resource systems which are either formal or informal. The informal include friends, neighbours and colleagues. The formal include support groups/ social clubs and associations. The public/ societal include housing, hospitals, work and school which provide certain structure or particular function in society. The system theory encourages growth and provides a wider range of solutions to problems by identifying areas of improvement or needing improvement. However it is said not to be acknowledging power differences within society and with different roles Adams et al (2009). Coulshed and Orme, (1998) clarifies that the nature of diversity in society makes it difficult to be entirely dependent on one theory or approach. Different situ ations and different circumstances entail different approaches through reflective practices and perspectives. Harris and White (2009) further explored events and changes within the welfare state from administering to managing the welfare state. They observed that the Conservative 1979 -1997 and Labour 1997-2010 were influenced by neo-liberalist ideas. This idea upheld the belief that market was superior to the state and as such professionals including social workers were meant to implement competitive government policy and approaches to meet global standards. These changes affected the vulnerable people in society as well because managers had been given the powers to speak on their behalf. These changes, debates and contradictions have put social work practice into a contested dilemma profession although this definition states that Social work is a profession that promotes social change, problem solving in human relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being. (International Federation of Social Workers, 2000 p1). Parton (1998) points out that the present political environment is dominantly global, modernized and authoritarian. As such policies are informed and regulated by market principles which prescribes and narrows professional boundaries which affects the rights of service users. In order to achieve their objectives social workers need to challenge and resist the authoritarian elements by employing critical practice. Fook (2002) articulate that critical social work practice should be concerned with promoting a society without domination, exploitation and oppression. In order to achieve these practitioners need to reflect, reconstruct, deconstruct and unpack more processes for change through careful negotiation within the dominant framework. Many critical social theorists have challenged the existence of a social order and have questioned social order as evidenced in the work of Habermas (1984, 1987) who distinguishes between the system and the life world which interact and sometimes conflict with each other. The system represents the structures like the government departments, transnational companies emerging from globalisation, ideas promoted by communicative reasoning, education and media. All these structures are relaying a world view through different reasoning. As such social work is not excluded as an agent of systematic managerialism in agencies Pease (2005). Fook (2002) and Gardner (2007) proposed alternative forms of critical theory which are feminism and post modernism. They focus on the understanding that the world reflects personal experience and social historical context. They argue that personal experience constructs and is constructed by the world we live in. They advocate to listening to peoples experiences (narratives) seriously and from these we can hear how they view and experience the world in different ways. Powell (2001) suggests that feminists maintain that the narration of experiences by individuals gives us a clue on how they construct the world and how they want to engage with their problems and situations. Thus postmodernists say there is an alternative way of viewing the world than what it seems to be. Post-modernity argue there is a different way of viewing the world and different ways to deal with societal problems hence critical social work seeks for different options and take the best way forward. Adams et al (2009) suggests that in order to seek the best way forward social workers are encouraged to adopt the eclectic approach which entails selecting crucial aspects from different theories and blend them together as one approach. Alternatively they can use different theories for different cases. This has an advantage of addressing inadequacies in particular theories as they compensate one another. However there are also limitations as to master different theories and selecting crucial aspects may be difficult. It might as well be difficult to select the appropriate theory to use in the first place. To overcome these limitations Epstein (1992) suggested that continuous reflection, agreement, debate and teamwork would encourage flexibility in complex issues. Milner and Obyrne (1998) propose that in trying to address social injustices and inequality social work uses a variety of skills and knowledge based on theory perspective and methodology. This empowers social workers to put in place intervention which is appropriate to individual circumstances. This intervention empowers social workers with skills to engage service users to bring positive outcomes. Banks (2001) holds that values are diverse, may overlap, can conflict and socially constructed. Traditional social work and critical social work values overlap and are based on Biestek 1961 and consist of the following: Individualism, non judgemental, self determination, purposeful expression and controlled emotional development. In post modernity terms these can be interpreted to promotion of social justice, emancipation, anti-oppressive, anti-discriminatory, empowerment, non judgemental and respect and dignity. Above all the language used may affect the way we interpret the world resulting in assumptions, overrepresentation or misrepresentation of issues and ideas, Adam et al (2009). Critical social work as discussed explores the best way forward to individuals problems and seeks to listen and engage with the individual to tell their story and work in partnership to find the best way forward. The limitation is critical social work is surrounded by external forces which are beyond it control, for example resources in the current economic climate globally and at home. It is also criticised as its values and origins are Eurocentric and do not represent universal circumstances as what seems to work in UK might not necessarily work in Afro/ Asian communities. For example the issue of confidentiality is valued and essential in UK and Europe whereas in Afro Asian cultures they value kinship support in times of distress. However they would not want anyone else outside the kinship clique to know about their situation. This brings interpretation problems to confidentiality Morley (2003). In order for all these theories to be implemented there should be contact with individuals in society who experience inequality and disadvantage. Furthermore it is also important to mention at this point that social work intervention and practice is broad and spreads into other disciplines. Group work, Counselling, Advocacy and Assessment are examples of different forms of practising social work. I will not focus on the broadness of disciplines but will focus on the aims of the essay which are to explore how the critical social work approach influences counselling. Counselling requires a lot of skills and approaches as it seeks to address and resolve individual dilemmas, decision making and resolving issues. According to Dryden (2004:40) cited in Adams et al (2009) counselling is described as principled relationship characteristics by the application of one or more psychological theories and a recognised set of communication skills, modified by experience, intuition and other interpersonal factors, to clients intimate concerns, problems or aspirations. Its predominant ethos is one of facilitation rather than of advice-giving or coercion. It may be of very brief or long duration, take place in an organisational or private practice setting and may or may not overlap with practical, medical and other matters of personal welfare. The Barclay report in the early 1980s mentioned that it was essential for social workers to engage in counselling as it helped to engage with individuals to help them manage their problems, worries and anxieties, Barclay Committee,(1982). This is no longer the situation today as noted by Brearley (1995) when he states that political, administrative, legislative changes and ideologies have affected the relationship between counselling and social work. Some social work practitioners are in dilemma as to whether they can do counselling or not and where to start with counselling and when to stop. Because social workers operate in a legislative, organisational, ideological, value and ethical context it is becoming increasingly difficult to engage in counselling without pushing boundaries, Furthermore the economic environment, budget cuts and lack of resources makes it difficult to manoeuvre and employ uncontested interventions McLeod (2009). However despite the above constraints social workers at some point carry out counselling as not carrying it out would render their job inadequate and inefficient. McLeod (1998) identified a number of counselling theories which are Person centred, Existential, Cognitive Behavioural (CBT), Motivational, Humanistic, Psychodynamic, Karpmans (1969) Drama triangle and Eclectic or Integrative approaches. Some of the theories have been criticised as inadequate and resource straining. One approach that is complimentary to social work is the eclectic/ integrative approach. Integrative theory is adaptable to the needs presented by the client or specific circumstances which is flexible and adoptable to client needs. McLeod (2003) supports this statement when he maintains that eclectic approach enables the counsellor to choose the best option and techniques from a range of theories to meet the client needs. It can mean employing different elements from different theories to blend them into a new suitable model or theory. These compliments with one of the social work theory of eclecticism which seeks to integrate different theories to intervene (Adams, 2009). It can be argued that the aims of social work and the aims of counselling are both focusing on individuals and their interaction with the society, problems they face and how they solve them. As Egan (2006) puts it and complimented by Coulshed and Orme (2006) social workers adopt skills that compliment counselling skills such as empathy or understanding, respect, self knowledge and acceptance and honest. Although there are criticisms on Egans work as being ignorant of psychodynamic ideas meaning it has limited application and effectiveness. A reflective practitioner would seek to promote social justice, anti -oppressive and anti-discriminatory practice based on knowledge to promote inclusive practice. Both professions are being challenged by increasing literature developing and need to engage in best, critical and anti discriminatory practice to reach all individuals and communities Morley (2003). My privilege in practice working with clients is that I have acquired knowledge and on values of social work issues and intervention. I also have a black African background which has some conflicting values to social work. I will focus on the social work values to overcome any prejudices and biases which may jeopardise my work. I also have the law on my side which would give me power to intervene and practice. In my experience as a caseworker at Refugee Action (RA) I used counselling as a technique to working with clients. Clients from different background accessed the service to resolve their immigration matters. Mostly the approach we used was the integrative approach which meant that the outcomes met the needs of individual circumstances. I did not allow my own values and prejudices to influence my practice. The advantage of having my own values and knowledge made it easy for me to overcome any prejudices and stereotypes towards my clients. As a person from an African background with different values from those of the British society, it was easy for me to understand how it is to be in the clients shoes. I also observed that Muslim women preferred to work with female caseworkers and male Muslims preferred male caseworkers. They appeared not comfortable working with people from the opposite sex and tended to withhold information if that was the case. I therefore ensured Muslim clients were assisted by a person of preferred gender. Above all I applied the Narrative approach which solicits encouragement to clients to tell their stories. This enabled me to explore clients situation at their own pace and actively listened to assess and establish the real problem in the situation. Carniola (2005) observed that social workers are in the right direction of developing critical consciousness about the psychological impact of oppression on individuals. He further expressed that there is concern on the degree of awareness among social workers on the impact of privilege or dominant status on individuals subjectivities and world views. Rossitter (2000) concurs that the position/ impact and ways in which professionals engage with clients is overlooked and underestimated as they possess a certain class in the form of gender, race, and sexual privilege. Having explored critical social work practice and theories underpinning it, it is important to acknowledge that there is continuous transformation and contest within the academic field and socio-political arena. This is greatly impacting on vulnerable people and how they are treated and marginalised in issues affecting their lives. If the values of critical social work could be fulfilled and the theories underpinning it are integrated social work and counselling would be forces for change to promote social justice.

The Japanese Militarys Threat to Americans :: Japan Army Military War Essays

The Japanese Military's Threat to Americans The war in the Pacific was unlike the European and Mediterranean campaigns. Throughout the European campaign the allied forces focused on strategic bombing and ground forces. Tank usage was more evident during the African and European theatres also. There were many changes in warfare that occurred during World War II. Warfare in the African and European theatre was fought mainly in the air and on ground. Due, in part, to the landscape of the Pacific warfare evolved: sophistication in technology and weaponry increased, heated struggles with a fanatical enemy, and increased coordination between air and naval support. Island hopping became the paradigm in the Pacific, naval and air support would lead the way. The U.S. Navy moved into the Pacific in 1942. â€Å"Americans combined air, land, and sea forces for tremendous strides across the ocean.†# The navy fighter planes and bombers would inflict serious damage upon the Japanese navy. â€Å"In one day aircraft sank all the transports and four destroyers; the Japanese lost 3,000 soldiers and most of the 51st Division’s staff.†# Naval craft moved troops and planes into the Pacific. Fighter planes and bombers cleared the way for the oncoming fleets. This led to the ability of the American forces to begin taking strategic islands. Sledge described naval support, â€Å"H-hour, 0800. Long jets of red flame mixed with thick black smoke rushed out of the muzzles of the huge battleships’ 16-inch guns†¦The giant shells tore through the air toward the island, roaring like locomotives.†# The bombardment of the beaches was necessary due to the resistance of Japanese forces that protected them. â€Å"On the reef and beach amtracs and DUKW’s burned while Japanese machine-gun fire went splashing through the water.†# American forces would secure islands while sea and air forces worked hand in hand supplying the troops. Supplies were received from sea through amphibious landings and air drops. The air and naval forces proved effective due to the sophistication of technology and weaponry they carried. New technology allowed the allied forces to land on the beaches from carriers out at sea. Problems arose when low tides stranded Higgins boats on reefs far from the beaches. â€Å"†¦lowered water levels caused Higgins boats (LCVP: Landing Craft, Vehicle and Personnel) to strand on the reef†¦ the use of amphibian tractors (LVTs: Landing Vehicles, Tracked; assault amphibians) to carry the troops across the reef.

IKEA Customer Loyalty Essay

Customer loyalty is all about attracting the right customer, getting them to buy, buy often, buy in higher quantities and bring you even more customers. In short, you build customer loyalty by treating people how they want to be treated. There are many ways by which IKEA builds customer loyalty. The goal of the loyalty program is to reward IKEA’s best customers with discounts and special offers throughout the store. The online business of Ikea was developed as a way of generating greater loyalty among the customer base, as it is this that ultimately delivers greater sales and profitability. This was the view of Adri Kraa, head of Ikea Shop Online, expressed at the Retail Bulletin Summit 2009 when he suggested that only five percent more retention through loyal customers could deliver as much as 60 percent more profits. Through a desire to give customers greater â€Å"empowerment† and convenience the decision was taken to launch the Ikea online store. IKEA’s kiosk-based loyalty program IKEA FAMILY has attracted more than 1.6 million members since its launch a few months ago. IKEA FAMILY offers special offers and benefits to customers, as well as program-branded merchandise and promotional events. The Kiosks, which are built, serviced and monitored by Kiosk Information Systems, allow new members to enroll and receive a membership card on the spot. The kiosks also encourage existing members to scan their cards for a chance to win a monthly $100 FAMILY Sweepstakes, as well as view exclusive current IKEA FAMILY discounts and offers. Mobile is playing an increasingly important role for IKEA as it continues to build momentum for its loyalty program. Mobile is a key part of the strategy, with employees using in-store tablets to sign-up new customers and IKEA sending out SMS alerts to keep consumers updated on new products.

Morals and ethics essay

The topics that are going to be explained include- the abortion policy, Bursas and how society deals with rapes. It will summarized Into a short paragraph for each topic which will Include an extra paragraph for defining laws and how they fit Into society, also a paragraph to explain what morals and ethics and how they have changed through society. The law Is a dynamic thing. Let a complex mechanism evolving from hundreds of years of tradition, culture and values.In general terms, the law can be defined as a set of enforceable rules of conduct with set down guidelines for relationships between people and organisms in a society. Laws change when society does, when a certain law is changed to fit the modern day society, it is a very complicated process in which a law needs to be changed. For example, Australian politician Barry Farrell has changed the law of selling drinks in bars after a certain time. The law states that bars and puns are not allowed to sell drinks after am to reduce people from being injured or even killed.Ethics and morals both relate to â€Å"right† and â€Å"wrong† conduct. Ethics Is set by a series of rules provided to an individual by an external source, egg- their profession. Whereas, morals refer to as an Individual's own principles regarding right and wrong. Ethics do not change as a person moves from one society to the next. Morals may change as a person moves from one society to the next. Bursas are an important point towards changing the community over time. The Burk is a fully covered outer garment that Islamic traditions wear to cover up their dies, showing only their eyes.The problem regarding the Bursas is that this tradition has been brought into Australia and worn by Muslim women everywhere, and refuse to take it off. This is why a new law is trying to be enforced to make sure Muslim women take off their Bursas when asked or needed too. The legislation was drafted in response to public outcry about the case of Bur k-weaning mother-of- seven Carnet Matthews, who had a conviction of knowingly making a false statement quashed.Ms Matthews was originally given a six-month Call sentence after being mound guilty of falsely accusing a senior constable of forcibly trying to remove her Burk when she was pulled over while driving in Woodbine in Kidney's southwest in June 2010. She was later found innocent on appeal after the prosecution could not prove she was the woman who signed the statement while wearing the garment. This statement is the main reason why Bursas should be taken off when told of. Abortion is also another significant topic in relate to change in the community.The grounds on which abortion is permitted in Australia vary from state to state. In every Tate, abortion is legal to protect the life and health of the woman, though each state has a different definition. There is now law anywhere in Australia that requires the notification or consent of a woman's sexual partner. There Is also no enforced waiting period or an abortion, except In Western Australia, a minor does not require parental consent or notification. This law Is also very similar to the one about rape. They both are salary In some ways and could not be controlled at sometimes.This law has changed over the last 40 years as back in the sass's, abortions were illegal in omen being bashed and then raped and getting pregnant, they had to change the law because of this. A woman will have to have the pregnancy and live her whole life knowing how her child was brought into the world. Every time she looks at her child it could remind her of that horrible and unforgettable night. Another reason this law had been dropped was because of several gang rapes around Sydney. There was a number of attacks in a matter of weeks involving a group of guys on a girl in 2000.Eight Lebanese men kept approaching two young girls aged 17 and 18 in a car on August 10th, August 12th, a 16 year old girl was walking through a park wh en a 17 year old raped her alongside 12 other men and one had even held a gun against her head, August 30th, a woman was told she was being taken to a house to smoke some cannabis, however she was taken to three different houses where she was raped 25 times by 14 different men, two 16 year old girls were taken by attackers at a local train station, where then three older men raped then repeatedly over five hours. This just goes to show how easy it could be to get pregnant after being raped.This tenement is true, this was happening to people because of the policy. In Conclusion, given the evidence, moral and ethics have changed law in modern society for a number of different reasons. The law regarding the Burk is still being questioned and still has many different ways n how to change or stop the law. Abortion has changed due to young women being raped, because of this the government and communities want this horrible thing to stop. Also, people are generally pleased with the law reg arding abortion as people do not want to see young teens being forced to have and live with a child.